:-NRLF 


What  is  Electricity  ? 

It's  Nature  Explained 


BY 


J,J,VERMEER 


GIFT   OF 


What  is  Electricity? 

It's  Nature  Explained 


BY 

J.  J.  VERMEER 


Copyright  1919 

r.  VERI 

eton  St., 
All  Rights  Reserved 


J.  J.  VERMEER 
5312  Princeton  St.,  Oakland,  Cal. 


FOREWORD 

OLD  as  the  title  of  this  study  may 
seem,  we  might  satisfy  ourselves  with 
the  truth  that  there  exists  practically 
no  application  of  electricity,  in  which 
all  /actors  cannot  be  predetermined 
by  established  formula. 

It  is  created  to  any  extent,  conducted,  trans- 
formed, stored  up  and  applied,  and  has  become 
in  a  true  sense  of  the  word,  a  public  utility. 

Could  it  reasonably  be  expected  that  the 
knowledge  of  its  real  nature  should  forever  be 
kept  from  entering  the  human  brain? 

Probably  it  could  if  a  strict  desire  were  enter- 
tained to  be  guided  solely  by  a  mass  of  circum- 
stantial evidence,  accepted  generally  as  axioms 
and  exalted  to  irreproachable  electrical  laws. 

In  the  attempt  to  dismantle  it  of  its  mystery, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  ascertain  to  what  ex- 
tent its  circuit  is  comparable  to  the  flow  of 
water. 

It  was  encountered  in  various  conditions  or 
states,  either  as  flowing  or  held  captive. 

Considered  from  a  purely  mechanical  stand- 
point, it  disclaims  all  superstition  as  to  its  pro- 
duction and  has  brought  out  the  fact  that  all 
objects  are  possessed  with  it,  consenting  to  an 
outward  demonstration  of  its  power  upon  its 
transformation,  or,  more  correctly,  its  separa- 
tion. 


Theoretical  value  is  attached  to  the  flow  of 
low-tension  current  in  an  insulated  wire,  exert- 
ing an  influence  over  a  galvanometer  in  direct 
ratio  to  the  amount  of  current. 

Also  to  the  induction  coil,  whose  secondary 
winding,  insulated  against  its  own  stepped-up 
voltage,  has  for  this  very  reason  been  deprived 
of  any  possible  admission  of  the  current  of  low 
voltage,  present  within  its  direct  cause,  the  pri- 
mary winding. 

At  the  time  of  discharge,  we  see  the  electricity 
under  high  temperature  re-enter  the  secondary 
winding  at  the  leads  of  the  gap  to  assume  an 
again  normal  condition. 

The  mechanical  action  understood,  the  chem- 
ical process  appeared  clear  by  logical  deduction. 

The  theories  of  single,  exclusive  surface-flow 
and  of  repellency  are  refuted. 

Presumptions  as  to  any  magic  fluid  or  ether 
being  essential  to,  or  in  any  way  connected  with, 
the  transmission  of  electrical  current,  are  de- 
prived of  foundation. 

Written  in  plain  language,  the  conventional 
terms  are  adhered  to,  and  when  in  the  course  of 
our  study  better  defining  expressions  are  offered, 
their  admission  has  been  made  gradual  with  a 
view  to  clearness. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


WHAT  IS  ELECTRICITY? 


HE  giant  machineries,  developing 
enormous  horsepower,  driving  the 
great  industries  of  our  century,  are 
actuated  principally  by  two  forces, 
so  entirely  different  as  far  as  human 
understanding  of  their  nature  is  concerned,  that 
while  the  one  is  understood  by  the  child  that 
received  his  primary  instructions  in  the  grammar 
school,  the  other  has  caused  the  great  scientists 
to  declare  its  cause  inexplicable. 

The  first  mentioned  force,  at  the  time  of  its 
discovery  when  the  lid  blew  off  the  boiler,  at 
once  established  its  usefulness  in  a  very  definite 
line  of  application,  viz.9  the  steam  engine. 

Not  so  with  electricity. 

Up  to  this  very  minute,  the  wizard  who  defines 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  passage  and  use  of 
the  electrical  current,  will  at  times  trace  his 
mind  wandering  in  a  seemingly  hopeless  search 
of  the  underlying  cause  of  this  mystifying  force. 

The  uninterested,  approached  on  the  subject, 
may  consider  it  sufficient  to  be  able  to  control 
electricity  and  subject  it  to  the  will  of  man. 

The  earnest  investigator  will  readily  admit  the 
benefits  derived  from  a  better  understanding  of 
its  nature  since  it  will  have  a  direct  bearing  upon 
the  properties  and  compositions  of  metals  used 
both  for  conductors  and  insulators. 


'•;    •      TTIF  FIGW 

From  the  time  that  the  first  electrical  current 
was  established  and  the  first  accumulator  was 
stored  up  with  electrical  energy,  the  name  "flow" 
was  used  in  referring  to  its  passage. 

This  flow  is  today  compared  to  the  transmis- 
sion of  water  by  means  of  piping  and  the  laws 
for  both  are  practically  identical  in  principle. 

When  we  speak  of  an  electrical  current  flowing 
through  a  metallic  circuit,  we  mean  to  convey 
the  idea  that  the  current  passes  into  the  con- 
ductor at  a  given  point  and  continues  on  in  a 
single  direction  to  return  to  its  source  at  the  re- 
ceiving or  negative  pole. 

Has  the  thought  ever  struck  you  that  if  this 
was  the  actual  condition,  a  very  important  dis- 
covery would  have  been  made  long  ago  by  stu- 
dents of  the  long-distance  conductor  like,  for 
instance,  the  telegraph  line? 

Since  the  water  system  is  universally  used  for 
comparison,  let  us  avail  ourselves  of  the  same 
here  also. 

The  amount  of  water  in  the  tank  is  our  supply 
or  source,  the  pipe  forms  the  circuit  and  the 
faucet  the  point  of  contact. 

The  distance  between  the  tank  and  the  outlet 
at  the  end  of  the  pipe  must  be  traveled  by  the 
water,  and  the  time  required  by  the  fluid  to  do 
so  may  be  termed  "lag." 

The  distance  between  tank  and  faucet,  how- 
ever, will  determine  the  actual  lag  as  the  water 
will  be  found  ready  under  the  pressure  of  its 
own  height  in  the  tank  to  pass  at  the  location 


of  the  faucet,  reducing  the  lag  of  flow  by  this 
distance. 

If  the  comparison  of  electricity  to  water  would 
hold  in  this  instance,  the  location  of  the  contact 
in  regard  to  the  source  of  current  would  also  be 
a  factor  in  determining  the  lag  of  the  flow  of 
electrical  current. 

This  apparently  is  not  true,  for  the  resistance 
of  a  conductor  is  measured  by  its  length  and 
section,  and  the  relative  positions  of  the  battery 
and  point  of  contact  are  not  considered  in  the 
calculation. 

What  then  induces  the  current  to  actuate  the 
receiving  instrument  with  a  fixed  amount  of  lag 
irrespective  of  the  location  of  the  transmitter? 

Undoubtedly  the  fact  that  the  flow  of  current 
is  not  single,  even  if  we  have  to  discard  the 
theory  of  an  electrical  pioneer  of  the  standing 
of  Franklin. 

This  theory  was  advanced  by  him  to  replace 
that  of  one  of  his  colleagues,  that  actually  two 
flows  exist  in  any  electrical  circuit  upon  its 
closing. 

This  latter  condition  will  be  readily  recog- 
nized upon  closer  consideration  of  the  electrical 
source. 

Let  us  first  expel  the  idea  that  electricity  is 
"produced." 

Study  the  first  page  of  most  any  book  on 
electricity  and  read  how  amber  (in  Greek:  elec- 
tron) when  rubbed  with  silk,  will  become  mag- 
netic due  to  a  charge  of  electricity  residing  on 
its  surface. 

3 


This  peculiarity  is  by  no  means  confined  to 
amber  and  silk. 

A  great  many  objects,  paired  properly  will 
give  the  same  results,  the  part  rubbed  retaining 
one  electrical  polarity  and  the  article  rubbed 
with,  the  other,  proving  the  contention  that  any 
object  in  normal  condition  contains  both  in 
equal  proportion. 

When  permitted  by  the  absence  of  certain 
conditions,  tending  to  keep  the  opposite  pol- 
arities separated,  they  will  absorb  each  other, 
neutralizing  the  effect. 

In  a  wet  cell  the  process  of  rubbing  goes  on 
very  much  alike. 

When  assembled,  before  the  acid  becomes 
fully  charged  by  the  dissolving  zinc,  until  sat- 
urated, the  flow  will  be  below  normal. 

The  action  therefore  is  from  the  zinc  towards 
the  carbon  entitling  the  zinc  certainly  to  first 
consideration  in  importance  and  questioning  the 
propriety  of  naming  the  carbon  the  positive 
pole,  a  policy  which  shows  the  inconsistency 
adhered  to  in  regard  to  so  many  electrical 
functions. 

The  friction  between  zinc  and  acid  in  the  cell 
causes  the  positive  pole  to  become  charged  with 
the  polarity  of  the  same  name  and  brings  the 
negative  pole  under  a  tension  of  negative  pol- 
arity. 

Before  closing  the  circuit  at  any  point  in  the 
line,  an  equal  amount  of  positive  and  negative 
electricity,  separated  in  the  battery  are  awaiting 
first  opportunity  to  reach  each  other  with  deadly 
intent  upon  absorption  across  the  contact. 
4 


Actually  any  part  of  the  line  is  in  a  high 
electro-motive  state  usually  called  "life." 

Not  only  the  positive  current  is  waiting  at  the 
positive  point  of  contact  to  continue  its  course 
through  the  return  circuit  towards  the  source 
of  energy,  but  also  the  negative  pole  has  sent 
out  a  differently  polarized  current  to  balance 
that  which  has  emerged  from  the  positive  pole. 

The  initial  lag  of  the  return  or  negative  cir- 
cuit had  been  overcome  before  the  contacts 
were  closed  and  is  thereby  reduced  to  its  normal 
lag  called  resistance. 

Upon  opening  the  contact  we  see  a  flash  ap- 
pear at  the  points  and  again  we  presume  that 
the  positive  current,  suddenly  interrupted  in  its 
terrific  speed  along  the  line,  has  sufficient 
tension  to  jump  across  the  gap  towards  the  neg- 
ative line  until  stopped  by  the  increasing  gap 
resistance,  unless  checked  by  an  equal  positive 
condenser  charge. 

As  if  any  one  polarity  of  current  could  ever 
assume  the  appearance  of  light ! 

Who  would  assume  the  risk  of  the  argument 
that  probably  the  air  had  become  incandescent 
by  the  friction  of  the  one-sided  charge? 

We  do  not  know  of  any  substance  in  the  air 
that  could  become  white-hot  through  electric 
friction  or  it  might  be  fatal  to  live  in. 

Examine  the  spark  of  an  induction  coil.  You 
will  see  the  air  surrounding  the  gap  assume  a 
bluish  flame  as  the  air  molecules  carry  off  neg- 
ligent quantities  of  electricity  in  distinct  contrast 
to  the  pure  white  of  the  spark  itself. 


The  flash  is  simply  the  expression  of  heat 
created  by  the  friction  of  the  reuniting  positive 
and  negative  quantities  in  the  gap  where  they 
hurl  themselves  at  each  other  as  long  as  the 
increasing  gap  will  permit. 

If  you  persist  in  adhering  to  the  old  single 
flow  theory,  why  not  disconnect  the  negative  side 
of  the  condenser  as  the  positive  charge  alone 
should  re-act  the  positive  current  in  its  jump 
across  the  gap. 

A  test  with  the  galvanometer  seemingly  shows 
the  current  to  travel  along  the  outer  surface  of 
the  wire,  the  needle  pointing  in  the  same  direc- 
tion at  any  point  in  the  completed  circuit  and 
on  either  side  of  the  wire. 

Does  this  prove  that  one  single  current  travels 
in  one  direction? 

Suppose  the  positive  travels  in  a  clockwise 
or  right  hand  direction  in  a  certain  circuit. 

We  reverse  the  polarity  and  the  galvanometer 
will  at  once  indicate  a  change  in  the  rotation. 

Imagine  now  that  a  single  negative  current 
could  be  sent  from  the  side  that  the  positive 
was  transmitted  from  and  we  must  admit  that 
the  needle  would  reverse  itself. 

In  the  established  circuit,  however,  the  two 
currents  would  of  course  not  travel  in  the  same 
direction  and  it  will  require  not  much  figuring 
to  come  to  the  conclusion  that  two  opposing 
currents  traveling  in  opposite  directions  along 
the  line,  will  have  the  same  effect  upon  the 
galvanometer  in  full  support  of  each  other. 
6 


Our  explanation  of  the  current  action  is  as 
yet  incomplete  as  the  mutual  absorption  of  pos- 
itive and  negative  quantities  in  the  conductor 
has  not  been  explained. 

A  proper  understanding  of  the  formation  of 
the  metal  used  as  conductor,  should  be  enter- 
tained first. 


THE  CIRCUIT 

The  study  of  the  principles  of  mechanics 
teaches  us  that  matter  consist  of  a  large  number 
of  molecules,  the  smallest  parts  into  which  it 
can  be  divided  without  loosing  its  nature. 

These  molecules  are  arranged  with  open 
spaces  between  them,  called  pores. 

It  is  accepted  as  a  fact  that  the  molecules 
under  the  influence  of  heat  commence  to  vibrate, 
causing  the  metal  to  expand. 

The  presence  of  the  pores  has  been  proved  by 
tests  under  water  pressure.  A  bottle  admitted 
to  the  depths  of  the  seas  has  become  partly  filled 
with  water  although  hermetically  sealed. 

In  metals  the  presence  of  pores  is  demon- 
strated by  the  property  called  "compressibility," 
meaning  that  the  volume  can  be  reduced  under 
pressure. 

Therefore  there  must  be  a  force  that  holds  the 
molecules  together  which  is  called  adhesion. 

The  adhesion  varies  with  the  density  of  matter 
and  the  molecules  of  various  matters  assume 
different  forms. 

The  molecules  of  steel  adhere  to  each  other 
with  greater  adhesion  than  those  of  any  other 
metal. 

Upon  breaking  a  magnet  of  high  quality  steel, 
we  notice  the  particularly  fine  grains  and  a 
break  of  zinc  reveals  its  brittleness. 

Iron,  when  heated  red-hot,  will  raise  its  re- 
sistance enormously,  almost  with  a  jump  and  at 
the  same  time  it  will  become  very  easily  bent 
and  twisted,  manifesting  a  weakening  of  its 
adhesion. 

8 


A  hardened  steel  magnet,  when  exposed  to 
extreme  heat,  will  lose  its  magnetism  as  its 
molecules  commence  vibrating  and  carry  their 
respective  charges  of  positive  and  negative  char- 
acter from  one  to  the  other,  neutralizing  equal 
quantities. 

A  magnet  tapped  continually  with  a  hammer 
will  weaken;  its  molecules  are  subjected  to 
jarring  and  in  making  contacts  due  to  vibration, 
will  impart  to  each  other  opposite  quantities  of 
magnetism,  which  become  neutralized  in  the 
exchange. 

Has  the  great  force  of  attraction  left  the  mag- 
net? No,  indeed. 

A  magnet  in  fully  charged  condition  will  lift 
a  load  of  a  considerable  number  of  times  its  own 
weight. 

By  no  such  simple  process  as  demagnetizing, 
which  means  neutralizing  its  opposite  polarities, 
could  this  great  lifting  power  be  induced  to 
trespass  the  boundaries  of  the  magnet  and  move 
about  in  search  of  new  quarters. 

Using  an  exact  duplicate  of  the  magnet  to 
again  recharge  it,  it  will  be  found  that  the  same 
amount  of  magnetic  power  can  be  restored  in 
the  now  neutral  magnet  without  decreasing  the 
efficiency  of  the  one  utilized  for  recharging. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  two  magnets  applied  as 
each  other's  keeper,  will  increase  their  strengths 
while  being  so  kept,  all  of  which  goes  to  show 
as  clear  as  crystal,  that  the  great  force  of  at- 
traction is  hidden  in  the  magnet,  independent 
of  its  magnetic  condition. 
9 


But  is  there  not  a  very  close  relation  between 
adhesion  and  magnetism,  also  between  mag- 
netism and  electricity? 

Or  would  you  keep  searching  for  some  kind 
of  ether  or  some  magic  fluid  flowing  from  the 
battery  and  that  could  be  conveyed  from  one 
metal  conductor  to  another  by  a  simple  touch? 

Consider  the  electric  dynamo,  a  purely  me- 
chanical device. 

Its  soft  iron  core  and  poles  are  able  to  re- 
verse the  polarity  of  its  adhesion,  while  its 
tenacity  insures — or  rather  is  the  result  of — its 
adhesive  strength. 

The  windings,  consisting  of  soft  copper  with 
larger  molecules  and  coarser  grain  are  specially 
adapted  to  convey  a  good-sized  molecule  load 
of  attraction  or  adhesion  from  one  to  the  other. 

Take  the  length  of  copper  wire  and  divide  by 
the  number  of  molecules.  Term  the  total  the 
resulting  number  of  cells,  each  having  their 
electrified  or  temporarily  magnetized  adhesion, 
separated  by  action  of  the  same  condition  of  the 
residual  and  built-up  magnetism  in  the  poles 
and  armature  core. 

You  will  account  for  an  enormous  series  of  life 
cells,  each  stepping  up  the  voltage  of  the  other. 

Where  does  the  ether  or  the  mysterious  fluid 
come  in? 

And  where  in  regard  to  the  magnet? 

Now  examine  the  non-conductors,  if  there  are 
such  things,  for  all  substance  possesses  adhesion. 

Relatively  speaking,  glass  is  one. 

Subject  it  to  heat  and  see  it  break  or  crack. 
10 


Its  molecules  cannot  vibrate  quickly  enough  to 
carry  off  the  heat,  with  the  result  that  the  part 
directly  heated,  does  all  of  the  expanding. 

All  matter  of  the  rapid  vibrating  type  are 
good  conductors. 

Matter  of  the  layer  composition,  unable  to 
form  a  large  number  of  cells,  are  unable  to  con- 
vey electrical  energy  actively  and  are  classed 
under  insulations. 


11 


THE  LIFE  METALLIC  CELL. 

It  should  be  plain  from  the  foregoing,  that 
each  molecule,  transformed  into  a  cell,  will  actu- 
ate the  next  molecule  to  assume  the  same 
condition. 

Our  electric  circuit  therefore  has  all  of  its 
metallic  cells  fully  charged  under  the  influence 
of  the  battery  or  dynamo. 

Upon  completing  the  circuit,  the  outer  mole- 
cules of  the  contact  metal  will  at  once  com- 
mence discharging  their  separated  adhesion 
from  cell  to  cell  and  upon  discharge,  become 
attracted  again  to  their  neighbor  on  the  oppo- 
site side. 

This  condition  will  last  until  the  source  is 
exhausted  or  the  contact  is  opened. 

The  action  of  the  receiver  is  as  easily  ex- 
plained as  that  of  the  dynamo,  and  is  its  direct 
reversal. 

The  molecules  in  the  line  under  charge  having 
become  life  cells  through  the  separation  of  the 
positive  and  negative  adhesion,  influence  the 
molecules  of  the  iron  core,  that  is,  draw  the 
positive  adhesion  in  one  direction  and  the  neg- 
ative in  the  other. 

Each  iron  molecule  in  reality  is  turned  into 
an  electro-magnet,  a  fact  proved  by  the  breaking 
of  a  permanent  magnet.  The  broken  end,  inde- 
pendent of  its  distance  from  the  pole,  becomes 
at  once  a  fully  charged  pole. 

The  arc  of  a  horseshoe  magnet  is  considered 
neutral  and  rightly  so. 

12 


Yet  at  any  point  along  the  bent  steel  the  mole- 
cules are  fully  charged,  establishing  a  line  of 
magnetic  cells. 

From  the  arc  towards  the  positive  pole,  all  the 
negative  ends  of  the  cells  are  facing  us  and  with 
the  arc  as  zero,  we  add  the  number  of  cells  and 
arrive  at  the  strength  of  the  pole. 

As  the  number  of  molecules  increases  by  add- 
ing until  the  end  of  the  magnet  is  reached,  the 
strength  increases  in  proportion. 

The  same  happens  in  the  direction  of  the 
negative  pole,  except  that  from  that  leg  of  the 
magnet  the  positive  charged  molecule  ends 
face  us. 

Add  the  strength  of  the  two  poles  and  arrive 
at  the  total  strength  of  the  magnet. 


13 


REPELLENCY. 

Assuming  that  the  adhesion,  possessed  by  the 
molecules,  when  separated,  transforms  them  into 
infinite  small  magnets  of  enormous  number,  we 
seem  at  once  to  enter  into  conflict  with  a  certain 
electrical  law,  dealing  with  the  repulsion  be- 
tween similarly  charged  objects. 

Adhesion,  the  mighty  force  that  resists  in 
separating  matter,  can  under  no  circumstances 
repel  or  there  would  be  no  adhesion. 

Let  us  trace  repellency  and  see  if  such  action 
really  exists. 

A  source  of  electricity  dating  back  almost  to 
the  first  electrical  experiments,  called  the  static 
machine,  consists  of  a  glass  plate  on  a  revolving 
axle. 

Two  pads  of  rubber  are  placed  alongside  the 
glass  in  opposite  directions. 

To  each  of  the  pads  is  connected  a  metal 
sphere  and  the  pads  are  so  adjusted  as  to  resist 
the  passage  of  the  glass  plate,  resulting  in 
friction. 

Amalgam  of  zinc  is  used  to  strengthen  the 
effect. 

By  turning  the  plate,  the  electricity  con- 
tained in  the  spheres  becomes  separated,  the 
positive  being  conducted  to  the  one  sphere  and 
the  negative  to  the  other. 

When  fully  charged,  the  spheres  are  subjected 
to  a  number  of  very  interesting  experiments. 

Brought  close  enough  together,  we  will  notice 
a  spark  across  the  gap,  accompanied  by  a  snappy 
sound. 

14 


The  width  of  the  gap  overcome  by  the  spark 
is  a  measure  of  intensity  of  the  potential  differ- 
ence of  the  charges  of  the  spheres. 

In  bringing  them  together,  the  opposite 
charges  become  more  and  more  attracted  to- 
wards the  points  on  both  spheres,  closest  to  the 
gap- 

The  molecules,  vibrating  with  intensified  fre- 
quency upon  the  closer  approach  are  at  the 
proper  gap  distance  carried  off  by  their  overload 
of  magnetism. 

In  a  dark  room  we  notice  the  air  lit  up  with 
bluish  flame,  forming  the  advance  agent  for  the 
passage  of  the  current,  but  it  is  not  until  the  gap 
is  justly  decreased  that  the  molecules  of  the 
spheres  start  their  rapid  vibration  across  the 
gap,  burning  up  themselves  while  conducting 
their  loads  of  electricity  across  from  one  sphere 
to  the  other  until  both  become  again  evenly 
supplied  with  neutralized  adhesive  energy. 

A  sharp  odor  is  noticed  when  the  ozone  is 
released  by  the  burning  metal  and  the  cracking 
noise  indicates  the  tearing  of  the  molecules  from 
their  respective  bodies. 

Thus  we  see  that  even  when  fully  charged 
with  one  polarity,  the  particles  of  metal  resist 
their  separation  vigorously. 

Repellency  as  regards  the  permanent  magnets 
has  been  believed  in  since  their  origin  although 
the  experimenter  was  fully  aware  of  the  exist- 
ence of  two  distinct  poles. 

Place  two  compass  needles  in  line  with  similar 
poles  opposing  each  other  and  they  will  at  once 

15 


manifest   a   desire   to   change   their   directions, 
reaching  for  the  opposite  poles. 

The  mutual  attraction  between  dissimilar 
poles  is  always  active  in  cases  of  this  kind  to 
make  repellency  appear  to  exist. 

Justice  in  discarding  the  theory  of  repellency 
is  established  by  the  following  tests: 

The  two  spheres  above  referred  to  are  charged 
with  similar  polarity  and  brought  together. 

Under  the  law  of  repellency  the  charges  would 
have  to  remove  themselves  to  the  farthest  pos- 
sible positions  on  the  spheres,  which  action  in 
reality  does  not  take  place. 

A  specially  designed  instrument  for  substanti- 
ating the  erroneous  rule  of  repulsion  is  made  up 
of  a  jar  in  which  two  gold  leaves  are  suspended 
from  a  plate  or  knob. 

When  approached  by  a  charged  object,  the 
plate  and  gold  leaves  become  a  three-pole  mag- 
net, the  leaves  lifting  themselves  towards  the 
plate  which  forms  the  common  pole  for  the 
opposite  poles  at  the  extremities  of  the  gold 
leaves. 

The  pith  ball  oscillating  between  a  charger 
and  discharger,  will  reach  its  object  with  a 
jump,  but  does  not  start  with  any  particular  rush 
when  leaving. 

Two  pith  balls  suspended  from  one  point  of 
support  by  separate  strings,  will,  when  charged 
alike,  take  up  a  position  at  an  increased  angle. 

Rather  than  being  repelled  by  each  other,  the 
electricity  in  the  surrounding  air  lifts  them  from 
their  vertical  position. 

16 


In  previous  tests  no  value  was  attached  to  the 
electrical  condition  of  the  air. 

In  the  olden  days  it  was  scientifically  proved 
that  air  has  no  weight. 

The  test  was  made  with  a  bladder  which 
when  pumped  full  of  air,  would  be  supported 
by  the  outside  air  to  such  extent  that  it  would 
not  weigh  more  than  the  shrunken  bladder 
without  any  air  at  all. 

Today  we  know  that  the  column  of  air  forming 
the  atmosphere  has  a  weight  balancing  an  enor- 
mous weight  of  mercury  in  the  barometer. 

The  pith  ball,  approaching  in  weight  that  of 
air,  gives  us  a  very  sensitive  measuring  instru- 
ment for  aero-electricity. 

Taking  the  point  of  support  as  the  center  and 
the  length  of  the  string  as  a  radius  of  a  sphere, 
then  the  amount  of  air  limited  by  the  acute 
angle  is  balanced  by  the  volume  of  air  contained 
within  its  supplement  against  the  weight  of  the 
pith  balls. 

If  it  weren't  for  the  fact  that  when  the  pith 
balls  become  separated,  air  is  admitted  between 
them  containing  electrical  attraction  to  pull 
them  together,  the  surrounding  air  would  tend 
to  draw  them  almost  up  to  a  level  with  the 
point  of  support. 

The  same  test  made  in  a  sealed  glass  vacuum 
or  in  air  charged  with  one  polarity,  fails  to  show 
a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  pith  balls  to  in- 
crease their  center-distance. 

The  electric  mill,  turning  on  a  pivot,  when 
permitted  to  discharge  electricity,  gives  an  effect 
similar  to  the  lawn  sprinkler  of  like  construction. 
17 


Does  the  water  repel  itself  at  the  exit?  No, 
but  the  pressure  remains  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  opening,  while  on  the  side  of  the  outlet 
itself  the  pressure  is  reduced  by  the  size  of  the 
hole  or  the  weight  of  the  dispelled  water. 

In  the  electric  mill  the  greatest  activity  exists 
at  the  point  of  discharge.  The  air  molecules 
throw  themselves  upon  this  point  to  carry  off 
the  electricity  released  by  the  mill. 

From  the  points,  streams  of  air  molecules 
radiate. 

From  the  sector  of  the  angle  the  air  molecules 
concentrate  themselves  upon  the  metal  points; 
a  concerted  wave  pushes  on  towards  the  points, 
causing  a  compression  of  air. 

The  same  condition  exists  in  the  case  of  the 
lawn  sprinkler. 

As  soon  as  the  water  leaves  the  opening,  the 
pressure  on  one  particular  drop  decreases. 

The  following  drop  by  reason  of  its  closer 
distance  is  traveling  at  higher  speed  and  in  over- 
taking its  forerunner,  rebounces  and  causes  a 
back-kick. 

The  pressure  condition  of  the  electric  mill  is 
also  comparable  to  that  of  the  lawn  sprinkler. 

The  one-sided  charge  of  a  conductor  causes 
an  unnatural  condition  resulting  in  pressure  or 
a  desire  of  the  singular  polarity  to  meet  the  ob- 
ject of  its  attraction,  which  is  the  opposite 
polarity. 

While  at  the  outlet  of  the  mill  this  desire 
becomes  appeased,  the  tension  remains  on  the 
other  side  practically  on  a  level. 

18 


Compressed  air  would  result  in  the  same  ac- 
tion in  the  lawn  sprinkler  and  would  by  no  one 
be  attributed  to  air  repellency. 

Finally,  when  a  body  under  static  charge  is 
moved  within  the  range  of  a  compass  needle,  it 
will  affect  either  pole  with  exactly  the  same 
strength  of  attraction. 

We  will  therefore  put  repellency  in  a  class  of 
down-and-outs  together  with  other  imaginary 
quantities,  like  for  instance,  "suction." 

The  desire  of  air  to  enter  a  vacuum  is  not 
entertained  by  any  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
vacuum  to  hold  air. 


19 


THE  BATTERY. 

If,  as  we  stated,  electricity  is  not  produced,  but 
the  force  of  attraction  that  holds  molecules  to- 
gether, is  divided  into  positive  and  negative 
quantities,  does  this  tend  to  show  that  two  kinds 
of  adhesion  are  required  in  its  make-up? 

Decidedly  so. 

The  study  of  nature  teaches  us  a  very  valuable 
lesson. 

There  isn't  anything  created  without  the  mu- 
tual attraction  of  two  elements. 

Where  one  certain  substance  feels  attracted 
to  another,  this  other  substance  must  necessarily 
answer  the  attraction  or  unison  cannot  result. 

In  all  creations  one  element  performs  a  posi- 
tive function  against  the  other,  the  negative. 

In  life  creations  these  qualities  are  called 
sexes. 

When  in  the  natural  course  of  development 
certain  elements  combined  to  form  a  new  sub- 
stance, their  adhesions  must  necessarily  have 
been  of  dissimilar  polarity. 

In  the  process  of  evolution  the  combine  would 
grow  stronger  as  the  attraction  developed  into 
a  more  thorough  inter-mixing  of  the  two  forms 
of  matter,  and  their  masses,  molecule  for  mole- 
cule, exchanged  proportional  parts  of  dissimilar 
adhesion. 

Mix  sulphuric  acid  and  water  and  a  chemical 
action  will  take  place  until  the  respective  attrac- 
tive quantities  have  been  equally  distributed. 

The  heat  resulting  is  evidence  of  great  friction 
caused  by  the  two  forces  absorbing  each  other. 
20 


Now  we  will  consider  the  opposite  of  the 
above  described  process  of  evolution. 

If  by  some  chemical  or  other  action  the  prod- 
uct of  evolution  were  to  be  dissolved,  would  not 
the  adhesion  become  released?  And  would  not 
in  this  process  each  element  accumulate  its  own 
adhesion  at  the  parting? 

Logically  it  would  as  the  adhesion  constitutes 
the  sex  of  the  element,  by  reason  of  which  it  was 
attracted  to  the  element  of  opposite  sex  or 
adhesion. 

This  in  fact  is  the  action  taking  place  within 
the  wet  cell,  called  battery,  where  the  zinc  is 
being  dissolved  by  the  acid,  the  opposite  ad- 
hesions become  separated  and  are  brought  under 
tension  as  the  zinc  molecules  terminate  their 
existence  as  such  and  are  finally  dissolved  into 
atoms. 


21 


THE  STATIC  SPHERE. 

Having  arrived  at  the  point  where  the  reader 
is  prepared  for  a  direct  answer  to  the  question 
adapted  as  the  title  of  our  study,  and  realizing 
the  desirability  of  a  brief,  unmistakable  term, 
we  reply:  Electricity  and  adhesion  are  the 
same. 

No  stronger  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  state- 
ment could  be  furnished  than  a  close  compari- 
son between  the  power  of  attraction  among 
molecules  of  matter,  under  its  double  name. 

As  the  capacity  of  adhesion  of  a  certain  ob- 
ject must  necessarily  be  limited  to  its  volume,  so 
it  must  be  with  electricity. 

It  follows  therefore  that  an  object  of  twice  the 
volume  of  another  of  like  matter,  will  contain 
twice  the  amount  of  adhesion. 

This  compares  favorably  with  the  electrical 
charge  of  the  respective  objects,  the  amount 
arrived  at  in  the  sum  of  the  positive  and  nega- 
tive quantities,  becoming  exchanged. 

In  other  words  the  electrical  capacity  is  in  di- 
rect proportion  to  the  adhesion. 

An  accepted  rule  defines  the  charge  of  a 
sphere  to  exist  along  its  surface  only. 

By  drilling  a  hole  towards  the  center  and 
dropping  a  wire  into  the  aperture,  no  indication 
of  a  charge  was  obtained. 

This  led  to  the  belief  that  the  charge  resides 
on  the  surface  only,  and  this  in  turn  was  blamed 
to  repellency  between  similar  electrical  polarity, 
driving  its  units  to  extremes. 

Now  if  the  above  were  true,  the  charges  of 
22 


spheres  would  be  in  ratio  to  their  surfaces,  which 
is  a  surface  ratio. 

A  sphere  of  twice  the  diameter  would  possess 
a  charge  four  times  as  large. 

The  actual  result  convinces  us  that  the  charge 
of  the  second  sphere  will  be  eight  times  as  large 
as  that  of  the  first. 

This  conforms  with  the  ratio  of  spheres,  which 
is  a  cube  ratio,  the  same  as  that  of  the  molecules 
and  consequently  the  adhesion. 

Now,  if  the  charge  is  in  direct  ratio  to  the 
volume,  all  molecules  must  carry  part  of  the 
total  charge  instead  of  the  surface  molecules 
only. 

Why  is  it  then  that  the  center  of  the  sphere, 
when  reached  by  a  metallic  conductor,  appears 
to  be  neutral? 

Let  us  trace  the  static  condition  of  two  equal 
spheres. 

While  the  positive  adhesion  of  number  one 
sphere  was  conducted  to  number  two,  the  nega- 
tive adhesion  of  the  second  sphere  became  in 
equal  loads  exchanged. 

Each  molecule  of  the  first  sphere  is  therefore 
furnished  with  a  double  amount  of  negative  elec- 
tricity or  the  total  of  the  negative  amounts  of 
one  molecule  of  each  sphere. 

Being  unable  to  absorb  each  other,  the  two 
negative  quantities  cause  the  static  charge  of  that 
particular  molecule. 

The  charge,  radiating  from  the  center  of  the 

sphere,  its  neutral  point,  towards  any  point  of 

the  surface  along  its  respective  radius,  will  add 

the  static  of  one  molecule  to  that  of  the  other 

23 


until  the  total  is  reached  at  the  surface,  in  ex- 
actly the  same  manner  as  the  magnetism  of  the 
molecules  of  a  steel  magnet  are  added,  arriving 
at  a  total  of  magnetic  strength  at  the  pole. 

Any  two  radii  would  form  a  magnet  with  the 
center  of  the  sphere  as  their  neutral  point. 

The  word  neutral  as  applied  both  to  the 
sphere  and  magnet,  is  of  course  incorrect. 

The  center  molecule  being  under  a  static 
charge,  cannot  be  neutral,  but  it  forms  the  unit 
of  charged  molecules,  so  closely  approaching 
zero  in  its  infinity  of  smallness,  that  its  charge 
cannot  be  made  to  register. 

For  the  same  reason  the  steel  molecule  in  the 
magnet-arc-center  cannot  be  neutral,  for  in  an 
absolute  neutral  condition  it  could  not  proceed 
in  the  stepping-up  system. 

Therefore  the  greatest  amount  of  magnetism 
we  find  stored  up  in  that  matter  which  contains 
the  greatest  amount  of  adhesion,  after  its  sep- 
aration has  been  effected. 

A  rich  field  is  opened  here  for  the  study  of 
metals  in  relation  to  electricity. 

Conductivity  of  a  certain  metal  has  no  direct 
bearing  upon  its  adhesion  for  that  electrical 
property  is  a  consequence  of  the  ability  of  the 
molecules  to  move  rapidly  in  convoying  the  ad- 
hesive energy  or  electricity  along  the  line. 

Although  copper  is  a  better  conductor  than 
iron,  its  adhesion  is  less. 

The  shape  of  the  molecule  is  also  to  be  con- 
sidered as  it  determines  in  a  measure  the  amount 
of  insulation  furnished  by  the  pores  in  trans- 
mitting energy. 

24 


THE  TALE  OF  THE  CONTACT-POINTS. 

In  a  closed  circuit  connect  two  distant  points 
between  the  terminals  of  a  voltmeter  and  take  a 
reading. 

Now  double  the  distance  between  the  ter- 
minals and  see  the  voltage  double. 

The  voltmeter  readings  of  the  conductor  will 
be  identical  with  that  of  a  battery  of  cells  in 
series,  so  that  if  one  cell  registers  two  volts,  each 
other  cell  will  add  that  same  amount  to  the 
computation. 

Compare  this  test  with  that  of  the  flow  of 
water,  replacing  the  voltmeter-leads  by  pipes  in 
similar  manner  and  distances. 

We  notice  that  while  the  pressure  on  the 
single  flow  of  water  remains  practically  sta- 
tionary, the  voltmeter  shows  the  electrical  con- 
ductor to  compute,  that  means,  to  add  cell  to  cell 
on  a  regularly  increasing  scale. 

And  as  the  voltage  for  equal  parts  of  the  con- 
ductor along  the  line  remains  permanent,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  voltmeter-leads  assume  positive  and 
negative  charges,  pointing  unmistakably  to  a 
two-current  system. 

In  other  words,  if  an  electrical  current  con- 
sisted of  a  single  flow,  the  voltmeter  readings 
over  various  distances  would  show  only  a  slight 
deviation  due  to  wire  resistance,  which  would 
be  practically  negligent  for  short  distances,  while 
in  fact  it  registers  twice  the  amount  for  twice  the 
distance,  etc.,  in  direct  proportion  to  the  read- 
ings of  a  number  of  cells  in  series. 
25 


This  gives  positive  proof  of  the  fact  that  each 
molecule  of  copper  assumes  the  functions  of  a 
cell,  its  poles  facing  dissimilar  battery  poles. 

Yet  this  condition  of  the  molecules  cannot  be 
permanent  or  there  would  be  no  action  and  the 
needle  would  retire  to  zero. 

In  their  rapid  vibration  they  come  in  contact 
alternatingly  with  the  positive  and  negative 
charges  of  their  fellow  molecules  and  upon  re- 
ceipt of  equal  quantities,  neutralize  them. 

Another  rule  accepted  long  ago,  defines  the 
flow  to  exist  along  the  surface  of  the  conductor. 

According  to  this  rule  we  should  calculate  the 
amount  of  current  transmitted,  in  direct  ratio  to 
the  circumference  or  diameter,  since  they  are  of 
equal  ratio. 

The  fact  is  that  the  flow  is  measured  by  the 
surface  of  the  sections,  which  ratio  equals  that 
of  the  square  of  the  diameters,  equalizing  also 
the  square  of  the  outer  surface  flow  since  both 
negative  and  positive  flows  are  naturally  of  equal 
opposed  strength. 

Here  we  have  the  proof  of  the  two  flow  system 
by  mathematical  formula. 

And  now  coming  closer  to  the  final  result  of 
our  experiment,  we  find  that  of  two  currents 
flowing  in  opposite  directions  along  the  line, 
one  takes  the  inner  and  the  opposed  current  the 
outer  course. 

The  explanation  is  found  in  the  fact  that  al- 
though the  tension  exists  in  the  wire,  the  vibrat- 
ing frequency  of  the  molecules  is  limited. 

In  the  process  of  combining  the  opposite 
quantities,  the  molecules  are  worked  overtime 
26 


and  when  the  limit  of  their  capacity  is  reached, 
the  surplus  must  travel  on  along  the  complete 
line. 

Getting  back  to  nature,  we  find  invariably  that 
of  the  two  sexes  of  vegetable  life,  the  seeds, 
forming  the  positive  function,  occupy  the  heart 
of  the  negative  quantity,  a  condition  demon- 
strated in  the  pollination  among  flowers. 

It  must  be  with  a  good  deal  of  surprise  to 
themselves  that  the  students  of  electricity,  in 
their  controversy,  have  given  their  entire  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  negative  current  on  the 
outer  surface,  the  identical  polarity  whose  exist- 
ence has  been  either  denied  or  ignored,  flowing 
as  it  does  even  in  the  opposite  direction,  namely, 
from  the  negative  to  the  positive  pole  of  the 
source. 

Not  depending  on  nature's  law  for  proof,  we 
will  examine  this  condition  in  a  well  known 
circuit. 

Rotate  a  shuttle  armature  between  the  poles 
of  a  permanent  magnet. 

For  this  purpose  the  primary  circuit  of  a 
magneto  can  be  used  excellently. 

By  causing  one  interruption  per  revolution  we 
assure  ourselves  of  a  constant  polarity  which  can 
be  predetermined  as  all  functions  are  known. 

At  the  time  of  interrupting,  a  flash  occurs  at 
the  contacts,  which  flash  can  be  adjusted  by 
decreasing  the  condenser  capacity  suitably,  the 
purpose  being,  to  have  the  points  become  pitted 
due  to  flashing  caused  by  a  slightly  overbalanced 
condenser. 

27 


After  considerable  running  the  contact  points 
will  show  a  remarkable  change  in  their  shape. 

While  one  has  attained  the  form  of  a  cone, 
the  other  has  become  a  true  negative,  permitting 
the  two  to  fit  closely. 

But  this  is  not  all. 

The  point  that  has  received  the  hollow  im- 
pression, has  built  up  along  its  periphery  and 
the  other,  having  acquired  a  cone-shaped  addi- 
tion, has  lost  from  its  cylindrical  base. 

Here  we  have  proof  of  three  assertions: 

First.  Metal  was  carried  both  ways  across  the 
gap  by  two  opposite  currents. 

Second.  One  current  carried  metal  from 
center  to  center  between  the  first  and  second 
contact  points,  while  the  opposite  current  con- 
veyed metal  from  the  outer  circumference  of 
the  second  to  that  of  the  first  point. 

Third.  Although  the  contacts  now  possess  a 
positive  and  negative  appearance,  yet  this  de- 
formation was  the  result  of  the  action  of  dissim- 
ilar polarity,  therefore  the  inside  current  was 
of  a  positive  character. 


28 


ELECTRICAL  ATTRACTION. 

In  an  induction  coil  we  call  the  inside  or  ex- 
citing winding  the  primary  and  the  outer,  the 
secondary. 

We  have  seen  how  in  a  closed  circuit  the  two 
opposite  flows  continue  through  to  the  battery 
pole  of  their  attraction,  for  the  molecules  as- 
sume both  polarities. 

Either  the  amount  of  current  that  reaches  the 
battery,  or  the  amount  becoming  neutralized  is 
a  waste,  depending  upon  the  character  of  ap- 
plication. 

In  case  of  lighting  purposes,  the  quantities 
neutralized  in  the  filament  have  furnished  heat 
for  light  by  the  friction  of  their  absorption. 

In  case  of  excitation  like  magnetizing  or  step- 
ping up  voltage,  the  neutralization  in  the  con- 
ductor has  retarded  the  function  of  the  passing 
current  in  electrifying. 

In  the  lamp  we  have  therefore  a  sample  of 
applied  resistance  while  in  the  other  case  we 
apply  conductivity,  and  the  two  are  here  pic- 
tured in  their  true  state  of  each  other's  direct 
reversal. 

In  the  secondary  winding  the  waste  is  elim- 
inated, for  while  the  excitation  goes  on,  the 
maximum  opposite  quantities  are  gathering  at 
the  opening  of  the  gap  on  a  computing  scale. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  secondary  current  is  not 
the  result  of  resistance,  for  resistance  is  the  re- 
verse of  conductivity  and  is  equal  to  the  amount 
of  current  neutralized  in  the  line. 

29 


The  foundation  of  the  secondary  is  found  in 
the  extended  series  of  molecules  of  copper  con- 
tained in  the  secondary  winding,  and  thereby 
we  have  effected  a  larger  number  of  life  cells, 
increasing  their  voltage  in  direct  proportion. 

Replace  the  secondary  winding  by  one  of 
larger  diameter  of  wire  but  of  the  same  length, 
and  more  current  will  be  gotten  at  the  former 
voltage,  disproving  the  theory  of  resistance. 

This  last  test  at  once  gives  us  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  grouping  of  the  molecules  in  the 
wire,  for  the  amount  of  current  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  molecules  arranged  in 
multiple  in  the  cross-section  while  the  voltage  is 
computed  by  the  number  of  molecules  in  series. 


THE  SECONDARY  WINDING. 

If  any  application  of  electrical  transmission 
gives  us  a  clear  understanding  of  the  relation 
between  electricity  and  adhesion,  it  is  the  sec- 
ondary winding. 

In  the  induction  coil  there  is  no  metallic  con- 
nection between  the  primary  and  secondary 
windings. 

To  the  contrary,  insulation  of  high  di-electric 
value  is  used  to  keep  the  secondary  current  from 
leaking  into  the  primary  winding. 

Could  any  one  desire  clearer  evidence? 

The  insulation  is  made  with  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  high  voltage  within  the  secondary 
circuit. 

Then  how  could  any  current  have  entered  it 
from  the  outside? 

The  explanation  is  obvious. 

It  existed  even  in  neutral  condition  in  the 
winding  and  upon  becoming  separated  to  its 
voltaic  gap-capacity,  re-entered  across  the  breach 
into  its  own  winding. 

Further  interesting  points  we  find  illustrated 
by  various  facts. 

While  the  flow  in  the  primary  circuit 
continues,  no  visible  action  takes  place  but  an 
electrical  magnet  is  formed,  computing  from  a 
so-called  neutral  point  midway  between  the 
secondary  leads. 

If  a  reading  could  be  taken  at  this  point,  the 
result  would  be  similar  to  that  of  the  center  of 
the  charged  sphere  or  the  so-called  neutral  point 
of  a  permanent  magnet. 
31 


The  respective  charges  of  the  molecules  or 
unit  cells  of  the  primary  wire  exert  an  attraction 
upon  their  corresponding  secondary  cells,  pre- 
venting their  discharge  at  the  gap. 

At  the  time  of  interruption,  this  attraction 
terminates  and  by  comparative  measurement  we 
find  that  the  resistance  of  the  secondary  winding 
exceeds  that  of  the  gap,  with  the  result  that  a 
large  part  of  the  adhesive  attraction  crosses  at 
the  secondary  leads. 

Now  we  face  a  problem,  apparently  not  alto- 
gether deprived  of  mystery. 

For,  if  the  high  tension  current  in  the  sec- 
ondary is  kept  within  bounds  by  the  insulation, 
what  extraordinary  force  might  radiate  from  the 
primary  winding,  defying  the  insulating  material 
in  its  influential  reach  for  the  secondary  wind- 
ing? 

For  further  explanation  we  must  now  consider 
the  opposite  or  reverse  condition  of  the  stepping- 
up  or  computing  theory,  repeatedly  referred  to 
herein. 

There  is  no  doubt,  of  course,  that  the  electrical 
force  in  the  secondary  winding  is  stepped-up  by 
action  of  some  force  within  the  primary  winding, 
but  this  force  is  not  that  of  voltage,  for,  if  the 
insulation  between  the  windings  would  permit 
the  low  voltage  of  the  primary  to  reach  across, 
how  much  less  would  the  high  voltage  of  the 
secondary  winding  be  protected? 

Now  there  are  two  values  to  an  electrical  cur- 
rent, viz. :  the  amount  and  the  pressure  behind  it. 

The  pressure  or  voltage  as  we  proved,  was  not 
the  cause  of  the  stepping-up,  but  the  result. 
32 


Quite  logical,  for  how  could  it  be  the  cause 
of  itself? 

What  is  pressure,  anyhow? 

It  isn't  anything;  it  is  a  condition. 

And  in  order  to  bring  a  condition  about,  we 
have  to  have  the  units  of  force. 

This  force  was  furnished  by  the  large  amount 
of  positive  and  negative  adhesion,  flowing 
through  the  primary  winding  which  was  con- 
structed with  a  view  to  absorb  much  current 
under  a  voltage  just  high  enough  to  make  it 
flow. 

The  current  itself,  we  see  here,  has  overcome 
the  resistance  of  the  insulation. 

In  other  words,  the  current  of  the  primary 
controlled  the  insulation  while  the  insulation 
controlled  the  voltage  of  the  secondary  winding. 

It  is  plainly  seen,  however,  that  if  the  high 
pressure  of  the  secondary  cannot  force  electricity 
to  leak  across  the  insulating  matter,  much  less 
will  the  low  voltage  of  the  primary  drive  its  cur- 
rent through  it. 

The  primary  current  therefore  had  to  influence 
the  secondary  winding  from  a  distance,  but  its 
forces  were  stored  up  in  such  powerful  masses, 
that  it  did  not  need  to  be  conducted  to  its  direct 
proximity. 

Its  action  was  that  of  attraction  and  attraction 
needs  no  path. 

It  was  electric  magnetism  that  drew  its  affinity 
in  the  secondary  winding  along  in  its  direction  of 
travel. 

33 


And  the  units  of  the  secondary  winding  which 
was  open  at  the  gap,  did  not  vibrate,  as  there  was 
no  circulation  but  lay  still  in  a  condition  of 
forced  electrical  charge. 

We  find  the  same  attractive  action  in  the  mag- 
net, but  here  we  have  not  electrical  magnetism 
but  magnetic  electricity. 

For  while  in  the  winding  the  attraction  is 
caused  by  an  electric  flow,  in  the  magnet  we 
have  the  electrical  quantities  stored  up  ready  to 
cause  a  flow  by  moving  a  conductor  within  its 
field. 

In  the  former  case  we  used  up  the  flow  and 
released  the  attraction  that  stepped  up  the  sec- 
ondary voltage  and  in  the  latter  instance  we 
arrested  the  attraction  and  the  flow  became  re- 
leased; simply  two  different  conditions  of  ad- 
hesion. 

We  said  attraction  needs  no  path,  by  which 
we  mean:  no  particular  substance  is  needed  to 
conduct  attraction. 

Science  has  always  sought  to  detect  the  con- 
ductors that  transmit  attraction. 

The  rays  of  light,  heat,  gravity,  magnetism, 
etc.,  are  all  conducted  to  their  destination,  we 
are  told. 

But  according  to  human  calculation,  there 
exists  a  vacuum  between  sun  and  earth. 

What  little  air  or  ether  there  might  be  in  it, 
could  not  possibly  be  understood  to  bring  to  us 
the  light  that  blinds  our  eyes  nor  the  heat  that 
burns  the  skin. 

Any  kind  of  a  weight,  released  in  a  vacuum, 
will  drop  to  the  bottom. 
34 


And  even  so,  will  an  iron  object,  when  sus-. 
pended  in  a  glass  bulb  from  which  the  air  has 
been  extracted,  become  attracted  to  a  magnet. 

But  the  attraction  is  always  mutual. 


35 


THE  STEEL  MAGNET. 

Extensive  experiments  with  steel  have  taught 
us  of  its  great  usefulness  and  we  see  it  applied 
in  various  instances. 

Steel,  we  could  rightfully  name,  the  symbol  of 
adhesion,  for  its  reputation  among  metals  is 
equal  to  that  of  the  lion  in  the  jungle. 

The  ease  with  which  it  adapts  a  magnetic 
condition,  points  at  once  to  the  great  force  hid- 
den within  its  matter. 

To  give  a  clear  impression  of  the  process  of 
magnetizing,  let  us  dispel  any  mysterious  phe- 
nomena and  produce  a  magnet  by  purely  me- 
chanical means. 

Take  a  steel  bar  and  insert  same  in  the  open- 
ing formed  by  a  spiral  tube  of  metal,  through 
which  hot  steam  passes. 

Before  long,  the  steel  will  undergo  a  change, 
showing  symptoms  of  magnetism. 

The  time  required  will,  of  course,  be  in  ratio 
to  the  amount  of  attraction  between  the  steam 
units. 

The  spiral  tube  came  under  magnetic  spell 
through  the  friction  with  steam. 

Here  we  have  a  dynamo  in  which  the  steam 
formed  the  pole  and  the  spiral  tube  the  winding 
but  the  result  was  that  the  adhesion  of  the  steel 
became  partly  separated. 

Now  when  a  hardened  steel  bar  becomes  sur- 
rounded by  a  strong  electrical  flow,  a  metallic 
clink  is  heard,  giving  proof  to  the  fact  that  the 
molecules  become  arranged  in  a  certain  way, 

36 


and  an  accurate  measure  will  show  that  the 
length  of  the  steel  has  been  increased. 

The  adhesion  of  the  steel,  separated  by  the 
attraction  of  dissimilar  adhesion,  flowing 
through  the  winding,  has  directed  each  mole- 
cule as  much  as  possible  in  accord  with  pore 
allowance,  into  a  straight  line. 

Just  why  steel  should  be  more  able  to  retain 
the  adhesion  in  a  divided  state,  even  in  increased 
relative  proportion  to  other  matter,  will  not  be 
easily  explained  until  the  science  of  molecules 
is  more  fully  understood. 

It  would  appear  that  the  molecules  of  steel  are 
star-shaped,  the  points  forming  distinctive  poles. 

But  the  fact  remains  that  in  the  process  of 
magnetizing,  the  molecules  become  severely  in- 
terlocked, accompanied  by  a  metallic  sound  not 
heard  in  other  metals. 

And  here  again  we  have  proof  of  a  divided 
adhesive  condition  of  the  steel: 

When  the  poles  of  the  magnet  are  connected 
in  a  circuit  and  the  positive  and  negative  cur- 
rents are  permitted  to  complete  their  neutraliza- 
tion through  the  magnet,  its  magnetic  outward 
power  will  have  become  naught. 

Powerful  miscroscopes  have  failed  to  enlighten 
us  to  any  extent  as  to  the  formation  of  the  mole- 
cules. 

The  study  of  electricity  has  shown  us  in  the 
steel  magnet,  that  the  adhesion  is  so  powerful 
in  its  abundance,  that  the  pores  are  overloaded 
with  it. 

This  we  see  demonstrated  in  the  fact  that  when 
made  up  of  laminations,  that  means  less  matter 
37 


and  more  open  space,  the  compression  of  the 
magnetism  becomes  released  in  the  pores  and 
the  magnet  becomes  even  more  powerful,  its 
surplus  of  adhesion  forming  a  magnetic  field  of 
attraction  far  into  air  space. 

No  wonder  then  that  hardly  any  electrical  de- 
vice is  complete  without  it,  much  less  could 
electricity  exist  without  adhesion. 

For  after  all  is  said  and  done,  each  substance 
in  general  consists  of  two  values. 

The  one  is  its  matter  and  the  other  is  the 
hidden  force,  called  adhesion,  that  permits  its 
mass  to  assume  a  definite  formation. 

Whatever  other  values  might  become  attached 
to  it  from  unknown  channels,  will  never  result 
in  the  mighty  power,  called  electricity. 

Study  a  drop  of  water. 

We  know  the  quantities  that  go  to  form  a  drop 
of  water. 

Watch  it  drop  from  your  leaking  faucet  in  the 
kitchen,  and  see  how  one  is  magnetized,  as  it 
were,  by  the  other. 

How  it  assumes  an  oblong  shape  before  it  falls, 
and  note  how  the  next  drop,  holding  on  to  the 
faucet,  shapes  itself  into  a  sphere  around  a  center 
of  gravity  all  its  own,  and  you  have  a  demonstra- 
tion of  the  two  values  referred  to. 

And  yet  it  is  possible  to  extract  electricity  from 
this  drop  of  water;  not  as  much  as  the  amount 
of  adhesion  it  contains,  naturally. 

Neither  could  you  separate  it  entirely  from  its 
adhesion,  or  it  would  fly  apart  in  billions  of 
molecules,  and  there  would  be  no  electricity  to 
38 


them  either,  for  you  dissolved  the  two  values 
when  extracting  all  of  the  adhesion. 

The  only  test  approaching  this  condition,  was 
made  with  a  drop  of  molten  glass. 

When  heated  to  this  state,  most  of  the  ad- 
hesion becomes  imparted  to  the  surrounding  air, 
as  the  molecules  start  their  rapid  vibration,  due 
to  the  high  temperature. 

By  dropping  it  suddenly  in  a  cold  fluid,  the 
surface  of  the  glass  drop  will  acquire  some  ad- 
hesion from  the  fluid. 

If  a  small  piece  of  the  surface  be  removed  with 
a  pair  of  pliers,  the  entire  drop  will  fall  to  dust. 

When  this  test  shall  have  been  applied  to  iron 
and  copper,  as  some  day  it  will,  we  shall  have 
seen  with  the  naked  eye  the  proof,  that  electric- 
ity, magnetism  and  adhesion  are  three  names  for 
the  same  unseen  force. 


39 


THE  CONDENSER. 

The  condenser,  being  used  as  a  store  room  to 
balance  equal  amounts  of  similar  polarities, 
forming  the  capacity  of  the  low  tension  circuit, 
has  a  peculiar  property,  tending  to  strengthen 
the  theory  of  surface  residence. 

It  is  designed  to  offer  sufficient  surface  to 
contain  the  necessary  amount  of  electrical 
charge,  and  the  thickness  of  the  tinfoil  leaves 
does  not  increase  its  capacity  in  proportion. 

The  condenser  under  charge,  contains  sep- 
arated adhesion  at  rest,  and  as  such  is  classed 
with  the  secondary  winding  and  the  permanent 
magnet. 

A  brief  description  of  its  function  will  give  a 
clear  understanding  of  its  real  value. 

Shunted  around  the  contacts  it  is  at  all  times 
connected  direct  to  the  battery  on  one  side,  and 
to  the  other  through  the  primary  winding. 

When  quickly  removed  from  the  leads  of  the 
circuit,  it  will  contain  polarities  which  will  re- 
sult in  a  flash  upon  short-circuiting  of  its  metal 
settings. 

There  is  no  considerable  voltage  to  produce  a 
spark  of  any  dimension  but  the  flash  denotes  a 
large  amount  of  current. 

The  side  that  contacts  with  the  positive  pole 
of  the  battery,  contains  a  positive  charge. 

When  balanced  properly  with  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  foil  leaves,  its  charge  will  re-act  the 
current  of  positive  character  that  is  excited  in 
the  primary  circuit. 

40 


As  we  explained  before,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  current,  when  abruptly  interrupted  in  its 
rotation,  to  come  to  rest  on  the  spur  of  the 
moment. 

Especially  since  the  opening  at  the  gap  will 
have  to  increase  from  zero,  the  effect  will  be  the 
drawing  of  a  flash. 

The  resistance  of  the  winding,  which  means 
the  limitations  of  its  moleculary  vibration,  will 
support  the  tension  controlling  the  flow  and  it 
is  this  electrical  energy,  prevented  as  it  is  from 
neutralizing  itself  with  the  opposite  polarity  by 
the  retarded  reverse  action,  that  needs  the  sim- 
ilar condenser  charge  to  force  it  back  through 
the  circuit. 

The  same  action  takes  place  at  the  negative 
condenser  side,  showing  that  the  negative  cur- 
rent also  needs  to  be  blocked  in  its  endeavor  to 
continue  on  towards  the  positive  contact  point. 

The  placing  of  the  condenser  leaves  in  mul- 
tiple has  resulted  in  a  large  amount  of  static 
under  low  tension. 

Now  according  to  the  theory  of  electricity  be- 
ing separated  adhesion,  should  not  the  condenser 
capacity  become  doubled  by  increasing  the  tin 
foil  leaves  by  their  thickness? 

Logically  the  number  of  molecules  and  conse- 
quently their  inherent  adhesion  double  by  the 
process. 

But,  as  we  have  learned  by  our  experiment 
with  the  static  charge  of  bodies,  they  possess  a 
neutral  point. 

In  the  sphere  it  was  located  in  its  center,  being 
the  zero  point  of  computing  pressure. 
41 


We  will  now  consider  the  action  between  two 
adjacent  tin  foil  leaves,  separated  by  a  sheet  of 
mica  insulation. 

The  construction  plainly  points  to  the  fact, 
that  the  condenser  has  been  designed  with  the 
view  of  applying  mutual  attraction  by  gathering 
the  opposite  polarities  alternatingly. 

The  time  allowed  for  the  condenser  to  build 
up,  is  limited  by  the  duration  of  contact.  Quick 
action  is  therefore  essential,  hence  the  universal 
order  of  arranging  the  leaves. 

When  the  contact  is  closed,  the  molecules  in 
the  circuit  commence  carrying  their  charge 
from  one  to  the  other,  and  at  the  condenser 
leads,  the  opposite  polarity  falls  an  easy  prey  to 
the  attraction  of  its  affinity,  and  becomes  ab- 
sorbed. 

At  the  same  time,  its  place  is  taken  by  similar 
polarity  and  the  static  charge  is  complete. 

The  resistance  offered  by  the  condenser  leaves 
to  this  static  attainment,  reduces  as  the  increas- 
ing charges  of  the  tinfoil  begin  to  exert  mutual 
attraction  upon  one  another. 

This  attraction  is  not  encountered  when  con- 
densers are  built  up  from  two  separate  columns 
of  tinfoil,  each  column  containing  a  strictly  one- 
sided charge. 

The  efficiency  of  the  condenser  of  the  mutual 
attraction  type,  in  becoming  loaded,  will  equal 
the  product  of  that  of  the  two  single  unit  con- 
densers. 

When  the  thickness  of  the  leaves  is  increased, 
this  attraction  will  also  increase, 
42 


Suppose  we  add  its  own  thickness  to  the  tin- 
foil, what  will  be  the  effect? 

Where  the  two  leaves  are  joined,  we  have  a 
zero  line  and  from  this  line  we  add  the  number 
of  molecules  in  series  forming  the  single  thick- 
ness, to  arrive  at  the  total  at  the  surface. 

The  tension  therefore  is  equal  to  the  half 
thickness  of  the  tinfoil. 

At  the  moment  of  discharge,  however,  the 
routine  of  exit  is  along  the  length  of  the  leaf  and 
now  a  tension  is  attained,  equal  to  the  number 
of  molecules  in  the  length  of  one  tinfoil  leaf. 

It  is  noticed  now,  that  while  the  double  thick- 
ness has  reduced  the  time  necessary  to  become 
fully  charged,  by  reason  of  proportionally  in- 
creased attraction,  this  increased  attraction  has 
opposed  and  retarded  the  discharge  of  the  con- 
denser. 

The  greatest  efficiency  is  consequently  ob- 
tained by  reducing  the  thickness  of  the  tinfoil 
to  a  minimum  and  thereby  dividing  the  amount 
of  attraction  over  the  largest  number  of  units, 
so  as  to  quickly  overcome  the  retard  effect  in  the 
discharge. 

In  short,  when  under  charge,  the  mutual  at- 
traction between  opposing  tinfoil  leaves  is 
directed  sideways,  but  when  discharging,  they 
arrange  themselves  lengthwise  with  the  flow  of 
the  current. 

The  thicker  the  leaves,  the  larger  will  be  the 
number  of  molecules  that  have  to  change  their 
direction,  the  sluggishness  of  the  condenser  dis- 
charge increasing  in  proportion. 
43 


This  same  retard  effect  is  noticed  in  electro- 
magnets, but  is  offset  to  large  extent  by  the 
softness  of  the  iron  and  the  measures  taken,  to 
prevent  sticking. 

If  hardened  steel  were  used,  quicker  action 
would  result,  but  the  breaking  away  of  the  arma- 
ture would  be  considerably  delayed. 

It  is  easily  understood  now,  that  the  length  of 
the  tinfoil  leaves  of  the  condenser  results  in  volt- 
age, while  the  width  denotes  amperage. 

The  total  voltage,  by  reason  of  the  multiple 
placed  tinfoil  leaves,  will  not  excel  the  length  of 
one  single  leaf,  but  the  total  capacity  amounts 
to  the  sum  of  the  leaves  multiplied  by  the  sec- 
tional area. 


44 


THE  UNIVERSE. 

The  study  of  electricity,  in  all  its  wonderful 
and  surprising  manifestations  has,  without  a 
doubt,  kept  mankind  spell-bound  from  the  first 
received  inkling  of  its  existence. 

With  awe  and  reverence  we  have  witnessed  the 
great  display  of  the  universe  when  the  atmos- 
phere, laden  with  the  weight  of  moisture  drawn 
up  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  became  charged  to 
such  enormous  electrical  capacity,  that  its  un- 
bound fury,  defying  all  human  conception  of 
conductive  limitation,  would  madly  dash  through 
space,  attacking  the  very  gravity  of  our  earth. 

And  coming  back  to  earth,  we  might  as  well 
consider  this  great  factor,  gravity,  that  has  kept 
our  globe  intact  against  the  centrifugal  force  of 
its  rotation  around  the  axes. 

Is  it  another  name  for  electricity  and  mag- 
netism? 

If  so,  it  would  seem  the  proper  time  to  call  a 
halt  to  the  baptism  of  the  great  force  of  at- 
traction. 

Again,  all  matter  is  possessed  with  adhesion, 
the  tangible  form  of  attraction. 

Strange  enough,  electricity  was  first  detected 
in  what  is  considered  to  be  perfect  insulating 
material:  Amber  and  silk,  glass,  hair,  etc. 

And  so  was  magnetism. 

The  amber  was  rubbed  with  silk  and  at- 
tracted small  cuttings  of  paper. 

The  paper  became  the  opposite  pole  of  the 
magnet,  with  a  mutual  desire  for  attraction. 

45 


And  the  silk,  upon  close  examination,  will  be 
found  to  contain  the  amount  of  rubbed-off 
amber  whose  adhesion  has  become  released,  un- 
balancing the  neutral  charge  of  the  remaining 
amount  of  amber. 

We  could  measure  the  conductivity  of  paper 
by  the  time  required  for  amber  and  paper  to 
even  up  their  polarities  and  for  the  paper  to 
drop. 

In  this  case  we  term  the  phenomenon  "mag- 
netism." 

When  the  extent  of  the  charge  is  increased 
until  a  spark  is  obtained,  we  apply  the  name 
"electricity." 

As  to  the  internal  attraction  between  mole- 
cules we  refer  to  the  power  as  "adhesion." 

And  if,  when  we  throw  any  object  away  from 
the  center  of  our  earth,  it  displays  an  unmis- 
takable longing  to  come  down,  we  blame 
"gravity." 

Boiled  down,  it  is  all  reduced  to  substantial 
attraction. 

As  the  molecules  of  matter  are  attracted  to 
each  other,  quite  similarly  are  the  stellar  bodies 
of  the  universe  balanced  by  the  same  attraction. 

Dissect  this  attraction  under  whatever  name 
or  term  into  its  polar  atoms,  positive  and  nega- 
tive, and  it  will  re-organize  by  electrical  dis- 
play. 

How  well  we  all  know  that  we  are  confined 
and  bound  to  the  great  magnet  which  we  call 
earth ! 

Again  we  have  a  neutral  line  at  the  equator 
and  the  regularity  of  the  computing  strength- 
46 


increase  towards  each  of  the  magnetic  poles  is 
accurately  measured  by  the  inclination  of  the 
compass  needle. 

So  great  is  the  affection  of  mother  earth  for 
the  products  of  her  bosom,  that  none  are  per- 
mitted to  break  her  ties. 

And  we  could  not  expect  otherwise  than 
that  all  matters,  extracted  from  her  depths, 
should  be  supplied  with  identical  attraction  as 
fostered  by  the  earth,  from  whose  very  heart 
they  sprang. 

Drop  a  weight  from  the  air  and  note  the  in- 
crease in  speed. 

Each  additional  second  an  equal  amount  of 
increase  is  added  to  the  velocity  of  descension. 

Here  again  we  have  attraction  on  computed 
scale  in  direct  ratio  to  the  specific  adhesion  pos- 
sessed by  the  falling  object,  the  foundation  of 
built-up  potentiality  as  encountered  in  all  elec- 
trical and  magnetic  charges. 

Taken  on  a  large  scale,  the  mutual  attraction 
between  all  bodies  in  the  universe,  insures  their 
equilibrium. 

A  faint  conception  only,  of  the  magnitude  of 
this  attraction  can  be  derived  from  studying  the 
well-nigh  immeasurable  distances  into  eternal 
space. 

But  clearly  stands  out  the  fact  that  this  far- 
reaching  power,  before  radiating  outward,  has 
primarily  saturated  all  objects  of  its  own  in- 
habitation. 

Thus  it  is  that  when  the  rays  of  the  sun  have 
drawn  the  water  from  our  seas  and  rivers  to 
transform  it  into  clouds,  a  part  of  this  gravity 
47 


or  adhesion,  has  been  removed  with  it  only  to 
come  down  with  it  again  in  the  rainfalls. 

But  should  its  neutrality  have  been  disturbed 
by  action  of  friction  between  clouds,  we  will 
witness  an  electrical  display  between  them. 

And  if,  as  happens  more  commonly,  in  the 
process  of  evaporation  in  extremely  dry  air,  the 
natural  steam  has  been  unable  to  retain  its  neu- 
tral state  of  gravity  on  account  of  the  low  con- 
ductivity of  dry  air,  and  an  electrical  charged 
cloud  is  formed,  the  exchange  will  take  place 
through  the  gap  by  medium  of  the  lightning 
bolt. 

And  again  the  attraction  is  mutual. 

Even  this  tremendous  secondary  current  is 
controlled  by  human  brains,  and  equal  amounts 
of  electricity  or  adhesion  or  gravity  or  attraction 
or  however  you  wish  to  name  this  tendency  to 
coherence,  become  exchanged  at  the  electrode 
of  the  gap,  installed  by  human  hands  at  the 
point  of  the  lightning  rod. 


48 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

What  is  gravity? 

The  force  of  attraction  that  keeps  all  sub- 
stance, forming  the  earth,  from  separating. 

At  what  particular  line  is  this  force  at  its 
maximum? 

At  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
How  is  this  proved? 

By  experiment  the  attraction  outside  the 
earth's  surface  is  in  reverse  ratio  to  the  square 
of  the  distance  to  the  surface,  while  on  the  inside 
it  is  directly  proportional  to  the  distance  from 
the  center  of  the  earth. 

What  does  this  experiment  signify? 

That  gravity  as  it  exists  in  the  earth,  is  a  sub- 
stance and  not  a  condition. 

Also  that  the  influence  exerted  by  gravity  over 
objects  outside  the  earth,  is  not  gravity  itself 
but  a  manifestation  of  its  attraction. 

Is  it  proper  to  refer  to  the  outside  and  inside 
of  the  earth's  surface  as  above  and  below? 

It  is  not  although  customary,  for  a  line  point- 
ing straight  down  towards  the  center,  would  be 
a  direct  upward  direction  for  the  location  op- 
posite our  position. 

From  the  center  of  the  earth,  all  directions 
would  be  upward,  which  would  be  contradictory. 

What  lesson  do  we  derive  from  this? 

That  no  object  dropped  from  the  air,  does 
really  fall  down,  but  simply  moves  in  a  direction 
towards  the  earth's  center  independent  of  the 

49 


up  or  down  position  of  a  fixed  point  in  the 
universe. 

What  is  weight? 

The  name  given  to  the  amount  of  attraction 
exerted  by  gravity  upon  any  object. 

Why  is  it  that  although  the  attraction  is  great- 
est near  the  surface,  yet  the  lower  layers  of 
water  in  the  ocean  possess  greater  pressure? 

The  lines  of  attraction  radiating  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  earth,  are  more  dense  near  the  center 
than  near  the  surface,  where  they  separate  due 
to  the  angle.  You  can  illustrate  this  fact  by 
drawing  lines  from  the  center  of  a  circle  towards 
points  in  the  circumference  at  small  regular 
distances. 

Why  does  gravity  increase  in  direct  ratio  to 
the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  earth? 

All  matter  consists  of  cells  or  molecules. 

In  the  line  of  direction  of  substantial  attrac- 
tion all  cells  add  their  respective  quotas  to  arrive 
at  a  total  at  the  end  which  is  a  point  in  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth. 

Why  is  the  attraction  directed  outward? 

Being  saturated  with  neutral  gravity  within, 
it  exerts  attraction  over  any  outside  object  with- 
in its  reach. 

Does  any  amount  of  gravity  ever  leave  the 
earth? 

Any  object  taken  from  below  the  earth's  sur- 
face, retains  its  gravity. 

By  what  term  is  the  gravity  of  matter  known? 
Adhesion. 

50 


Can  this  adhesion  or  gravity  be  removed  from 
an  object? 

It  is  very  difficult  to  separate  from  its  matter 
while  in  a  neutral  condition  but  when  dissected 
into  its  elements,  they  assume  positive  and  nega- 
tive polarities. 

How  can  we  tell  dissected  gravity  from  neutral 
gravity? 

By  the  great  desire  of  the  two  quantities  to 
reach  each  other. 

What  does  this  desire  result  in? 

The  two  polarities  will  reach  each  other  de- 
spite human  efforts  to  keep  them  separated. 

Can  their  separation  remain  indefinite? 

It  cannot.  All  substance,  including  air  being 
supplied  with  gravity,  it  will  necessarily  come  in 
contact  with  its  opposite  polarity  and  eventually 
neutralize. 

What  particular  term  is  given  to  the  attraction 
between  bodies  supplied  with  opposite  pol- 
arities? 

This  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the 
charge.  When  a  large  amount  of  gravity  exists 
under  low  pressure,  it  will  attract  other  objects 
and  the  property  is  called  magnetism. 

When  the  amount  is  small  but  brought  under 
a  high  pressure,  due  to  a  large  series  of  cells, 
the  opposite  polarities  will  leave  their  respec- 
tive bodies  and  exchange  equal  quantities 
through  the  air  or  by  conductor  and  the  name 
electricity  is  applied. 

51 


What  do  we  call  the  condition  of  an  object 
supplied  with  one  polarity  of  gravity? 

Static. 

Does  the  amount  of  gravity  in  an  object  de- 
crease upon  removing  one  polarity? 

It  is  not  removed,  but  exchanged. 

Therefore,  one  particular  polarity  can  be  re- 
moved only  by  replacing  it  by  an  equal  amount 
of  opposite  polarity. 

How  is  the  neutralization  effected? 

Since  all  matter  possesses  gravity,  a  body  un- 
der static  charge  may  be  neutralized  by  bringing 
it  in  contact  with  any  other  object  or  number  of 
objects  until  again  evenly  distributed. 

How  do  we  know  that  gravity  and  adhesion 
are  the  same? 

All  matter  on  earth  originates  from  the  earth 
and  is  supplied  with  its  attractive  substance. 

Bodies  whose  gravity  has  been  separated,  may 
become  neutral  by  connecting  them  with  the 
earth  by  a  so-called  ground  connection. 

How  is  the  separation  effected? 

In  various  manners. 

By  the  process  of  rubbing,  a  number  of  mole- 
cules become  dissolved  and  the  gravity  released. 
If  the  articles  paired  in  this  process  are  espe- 
cially partial  to  the  opposite  polarities,  the  grav- 
ity will  be  separated  into  its  polarities. 

By  chemical  action,  as  for  instance,  dissolving 
zinc  in  sulphuric  acid. 

By  mechanical  means,  attracting  opposite 
polarities  in  opposite  directions  in  conductors. 

Explain  the  mechanical  action? 
52 


The  practical  way  is  to  first  separate  the 
gravity  of  a  steel  or  iron  device  by  magnetizing 
and  thereby  accumulating  its  positive  and  nega- 
tive polarities  at  the  respective  extreme  ends, 
called  poles,  which  are  suitably  hugged  about  a 
metal  winding  rotating  on  a  core. 

The  opposite  polarities  in  the  winding  are 
drawn  towards  the  magnetic  pole  of  their  at- 
traction and  upon  closing  the  circuit,  will  flow 
into  the  line  to  reunite. 

What  is  a  magnet? 

A  permanent  magnet  is  a  bar  of  steel  in  which 
the  gravity  or  adhesion  has  been  separated  and 
arrested  in  this  condition. 

An  electro-magnet  is  an  iron  bar  surrounded 
by  a  winding  through  which  opposite  polarities 
of  adhesion  pass  in  opposite  directions. 

Does  a  permanent  magnet  have  other  prop- 
erties besides  that  of  attraction? 

It  is  claimed  that  similar  poles  repel  each 
other,  but  as  neutral  gravity  attracts,  it  follows 
that  the  magnetic  influence  cannot  result  in  re- 
pulsion. 

Isn't  it  a  fact  that  two  similar  poles,  opposed 
to  each  other,  will  pull  away  in  an  opposite 
direction? 

It  appears  that  two  straight  bars  supported  on 
bearings  so  as  to  reduce  friction  to  a  minimum, 
confronted  by  similar  polarity,  will  draw  apart, 
but  this  tendency  does  in  no  measure  compare 
with  the  force  of  attraction  between  dissimilar 
poles. 

It  is  plainly  seen,  however,  that  two  similar 
poles,  when  placed  face  to  face,  will  draw  the 
53 


opposite  polarity  of  the  gravity  of  air  between 
themselves. 

This  is  illustrated  by  the  lines  of  the  mag- 
netic field  when  materialized  by  iron  filings. 

The  result  is  a  compression  of  air  between 
the  poles  of  the  magnet-bars,  which  is  supported 
by  the  attraction  between  the  far-ends  of  the 
bars  and  their  surrounding  air. 

How  does  the  repellency  compare  in  case  of 
horseshoe  magnets? 

According  to  the  law  of  repellency,  it  should 
increase,  for  both  poles  meet  similar  poles  and 
the  attraction  between  double  poles  more  than 
doubles  as  compared  to  single  pole  attraction. 

The  fact  is  that  when  two  horseshoe  magnets 
are  similarly  opposed  and  very  exactly  lined 
up,  we  are  unable  to  feel  any  repulsion. 

When  moved  slightly  out  of  line,  we  notice 
only  a  tendency  to  move  in  a  direct  line  towards 
the  pole  of  attraction. 

What  is  the  rate  of  attraction  in  this  case? 

The  rate  increases  inversely  as  the  square  of 
the  distance  between  dissimilar  poles. 

What  would  be  the  effect  of  repellency  in  this 
case? 

The  sum  of  the  amount  of  repellency  between 
similar  poles  plus  the  amount  of  attraction  be- 
tween dissimilar  poles  would  be  the  same  at  any 
point  between  the  poles  of  the  stationary  mag- 
net and  we  would  notice  a  uniform  tendency  of 
force  until  the  moving  magnet  becomes  dissim- 
ilarly opposed  to  the  stationary  magnet. 

What  is  the  actual  effect? 

54 


Sliding  the  movable  magnet  sideways,  we  find 
that  the  attraction  accelerates  from  zero,  not 
considering  the  effect  of  aero-magnetism. 

What  is  the  condition  of  a  static  sphere? 

One  of  its  polarities  of  gravity  has  been  ex- 
changed for  an  equal  amount  of  opposite  pol- 
arity subtracted  from  some  other  body  and  it 
possesses  now  only  one  kind. 

What  is  the  maximum  discharge  obtainable? 

Half  the  amount  of  its  gravity.  In  a  dis- 
charge between  two  equal  spheres,  half  the 
amount  of  each  sphere  is  exchanged  and  the 
total  discharge  equals  the  full  amount  of  one 
sphere. 

Why  is  its  center  neutral? 

Being  supplied  with  one  polarity,  there  is 
practically  no  attraction  at  the  center  of  the 
sphere  because  all  attractive  or  opposite  polar- 
ity now  has  been  removed  outside  the  surface 
of  the  sphere. 

Could  any  indication  of  static  be  obtained  at 
the  center? 

No,  but  contacts  made  with  the  sphere  at  va- 
rious distances  from  the  center,  indicate  poten- 
tials in  direct  ratio  to  that  distance. 

Could  a  static  sphere  become  neutralized  with 
the  aid  of  a  neutral  sphere? 

It  can  in  relation  to  the  neutral  sphere,  but 
both  will  contain  an  excess  of  the  polarity  of 
the  static  in  regard  to  the  earth  or  other  neutral 
objects. 

Is  there  a  tension  or  pressure  to  the  static? 
55 


The  amount  of  singular  gravity  in  each  cell 
or  molecule  is  directed  toward  the  outside 
whither  its  affinity  has  been  deducted  and  their 
desire  for  the  same  is  carried  forth  by  each  and 
every  cell  in  the  radius,  reaching  a  total  at  the 
surface. 

Does  the  charge  radiate  outward? 

It  does  not  leave  the  sphere  unless  conducted, 
but  it  attracts  through  space. 

What  is  a  magnetic  field? 

The  extent  of  a  magnetic  field  is  the  maxi- 
mum distance  at  which  the  attraction  of  a  mag- 
netic pole  is  felt. 

Do  magnetic  lines  exist? 

Magnetic  lines  do  not  leap  into  air  space,  for 
if  they  did,  iron  filings  dropped  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  under  which  a  magnet  is  held,  would  at 
once  direct  themselves  in  a  final  position,  while 
in  fact  they  first  form  a  closed  line  and  after- 
wards spread  out  into  their  full  curve  as  more 
filings  are  dropped. 

Is  magnetism  governed  by  the  same  laws  as 
gravity? 

Yes,  the  strength  of  a  magnet  is  in  direct  pro- 
portion to  its  length  while  its  outside  attraction 
is  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
distance. 

What  other  name  is  given  to  gravity  in  cer- 
tain instances? 

The  property  of  fluids  adhering  to  an  object 
is  called  cohesion. 

And  so  is  the  attraction  between  an  object 
floating  in  a  bowl  of  water,  and  the  brim  of  the 

56 


bowl.  Ere  long  the  object  will  anchor  itself 
along  the  brim. 

How  is  gravity  made  to  flow  through  a  circuit? 

It  is  first  separated  either  by  mechanical  or 
chemical  means  and  the  two  polarities  are  per- 
mitted to  again  meet  each  other  in  a  conductor 
outside  the  separator,  called  generator  or  battery 
as  the  case  may  be. 

How  is  the  current  conducted? 

By  molecular  loads.  The  vibration  of  the 
molecules  causes  them  to  separate  while  con- 
veying a  load  of  gravity  and  this  separation 
temporarily  insulates  them  until  a  contact  is  es- 
tablished at  the  end  of  the  vibration-stroke,  with 
other  molecules,  possessing  opposite  polarity  of 
adhesion.  In  this  manner  the  life  metallic  cell 
is  created. 

Do  the  molecules  vibrate  regularly  while  con- 
veying gravity? 

Their  movements  are  timed  accurately  by  the 
attraction  of  the  separated  gravity. 

What  is  an  electro-magnet? 

An  iron  core  surrounded  by  a  coil  of  wire 
through  which  a  current  flows. 

Each  of  the  two  currents,  flowing  in  opposite 
directions,  draws  the  gravity  of  its  attraction 
within  the  iron  core  in  its  direction  of  flow  to- 
wards a  pole. 

Do  the  molecules  of  the  core  vibrate  in  the 
process? 

No,  they  direct  themselves  under  control  of 
the  flowing  gravity  in  the  winding  and  are  held 
captive  in  this  position  until  the  circuit  is 

57 


broken,  whereupon  they  carry  their  opposite 
polarities  together  again. 

Do  the  magnetic  lines  rotate  through  the  cores 
and  armature,  while  active? 

Magnetic  lines  are  of  imaginary  existence. 

The  control  of  the  flowing  current  over  the 
magnetic  gravity  holds  the  magnetism  wthin  the 
cores  and  armature  locked  in  strict  obeyance. 

A  permanent  magnet,  preserved  by  a  keeper, 
would  neutralize  if  magnetism  were  to  flow 
across  the  keeper. 

In  an  electro-magnet  used  for  lifting  purposes, 
the  magnetism  would  weaken  upon  taking  hold 
of  the  weight. 

Why  does  it  take  longer  for  an  electro-magnet 
to  become  active  at  the  closing  of  the  circuit 
than  to  de-magnetize  upon  breaking? 

In  the  first  instance  the  resistance  offered  by 
the  opposite  polarities  of  gravity  in  the  cores 
against  their  separation,  must  be  overcome. 

In  the  latter  instance,  the  attraction  among 
the  separated  polarities  assists  in  neutralizing. 

What  action  takes  place  in  a  secondary  coil? 

The  currents  flowing  in  the  primary  circuit 
attract  dissimilar  polarities  of  the  gravity  of  the 
secondary  winding  along  in  their  respective  di- 
rections and  away  from  a  so-called  neutral  point. 

Does  the  secondary  current  keep  moving 
while  the  primary  current  flows? 

No,  upon  closing  the  primary  circuit,  the  sec- 
ondary gravity  at  once  arranges  itself  in  accord- 
ance and  stays  arrested  until  the  primary  is 
opened. 

58 


At  this  moment  part  of  the  secondary  charges 
move  across  the  gap  and  part  pass  through  the 
secondary  winding. 

What  application  is  made  of  this  secondary 
discharge? 

The  kick-coil.  The  high-tension  of  the  sec- 
ondary charges  arrested  near  the  ends  of  the 
secondary  coil  farthest  from  the  neutral  point, 
will,  when  the  circuit  is  broken,  cause  the  sec- 
ondary to  jump  ahead  towards  the  neutral  point 
and  by  attraction  pull  the  primary  along. 
Quicker  and  snappier  flash  is  thus  obtained  at 
the  make  and  break  contact. 

Is  the  term  "storage  battery,"  as  applied  to  a 
certain  electrical  apparatus,  correct? 

Yes,  contrary  to  the  general  conception. 

When  the  electrolyte  is  first  placed  in  the  jars 
containing  the  negative  and  positive  plates,  its 
gravity  is  low. 

When  the  charging  current  is  applied  to  the 
poles,  both  positive  and  negative  matter  become 
dissolved  and  their  respective  atoms  cease  to 
exist  as  such.  The  gravity  that  formerly  com- 
posed their  molecules,  becomes  released  and  is 
divided  over  all  matter  within  the  jar,  including 
the  electrolyte. 

The  two  polarities  separated  by  the  dissolu- 
tion, are  held  captive  by  the  poles  of  their  at- 
traction, the  dissolved  elements  with  whom  they 
parted  in  the  process,  having  been  conducted  to 
the  opposite  poles. 

When  fully  charged,  the  hydrometer  readings 
indicate  a  large  increase  of  gravity,  stored  up  in 
the  acid. 

59 


If  two  polarities  of  gravity  exist  in  divided 
state  in  the  acid,  why  do  they  not  combine  and 
become  neutralized? 

They  do  so  by  slow  action  internally.  This 
calls  for  occasional  recharge  of  the  battery  in 
idle  condition. 

What  is  the  condition  of  the  acid  on  open 
circuit? 

Static  and  therefore  computing  from  a  neutral 
line  midway  between  the  opposite  poles. 

Why  then  does  the  gravity  of  the  acid  read 
uniform  throughout  the  jar? 

By  a  certain  law,  the  weight  or  pressure,  or 
more  correctly,  the  attraction  of  gravity  is  evenly 
divided  in  liquids.  The  various  molecules  pos- 
sess an  equal  amount  of  gravity  individually,  but 
all  fluids  being  molecularly  composed,  the  pres- 
sure of  their  charge  accelerates  towards  the 
poles. 

Why  is  the  internal  rate  of  discharge  low  on 
open  circuit? 

The  attraction  which  arrests  the  polarities  of 
the  acid  and  prevents  their  rapid  discharge,  is 
greatest  with  their  respective  polar  matter, 
which  is  considerably  more  dense. 

How  do  we  know  that  cohesion  between  the 
molecules  of  water  is  gravity? 

All  substance,  including  liquids,  possesses 
gravity. 

When  water  freezes,  it  contracts  and  so  do 
its  molecules.  Each  molecule  of  ice,  assuming 
a  smaller  volume  than  when  in  liquid  form,  in- 
creases its  gravity  in  regard  to  its  former  volume 

60 


and  becomes  more  dense,  increasing  its  tenacity. 
When  heated  to  the  gaseous  state,  the  molecules 
increase  in  size  and  the  gravity  becomes  leaner. 
It  still  contains  gravity,  for,  when  it  forms  a 
cloud  under  static  charge,  it  neutralizes  this 
charge  by  exchange  with  the  earth. 


(THE  END.) 


61 


UNIVEESITY  OF  CALEb'OEiVIA  LIBEAEY, 
BEEKELEY 


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RECD'LD 

FEB  1 1 1957 


01724 


